EPUB Ebooks: Free ebook sample of "Carpentry for Boys" by GoatHollow

The "How-to-do-it" Books

CARPENTRY FOR BOYS

Fig. 1. A Typical Work Bench.

THE "HOW-TO-DO-IT" BOOKS

CARPENTRY FOR BOYS

in simple language, including chapters on drawing, laying out work, designing and architecture

WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS

By J. S. ZERBE, M.E.

AUTHOR OF

ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS
PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS

THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY

New York

Copyright, 1914, by

THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY

© 2011 by Goat Hollow Press

All rights reserved.

ISBN 978-1466437289

LCCN 1466437286

Printed in the United States of America.

Foreword

The Prepper Archaeology collection is a joint venture between Ron Foster, Cheryl Chamilies, and Doug Carlsten to establish a collection of historic preparedness research and information books. We search the antique book stores, and archives for old tomes of forgotten knowledge contained in out of print or forgotten books and make arrangements to republish them as a resurrection into good quality modern books.

Meticulous care and detail in reproduction is undertaken to preserve and honor the author's original works, and preserve the old time secrets, and methods used by our Grand parents, and Great Grandparents.

The republishing process utilizes good quality low acid crème colored paper, and modernized high gloss book covers for durability. The books in the collection are hand selected by experts in their field for the “Prepper” community's enjoyment, so that this historical lore will not be lost, and may be used again to face the disasters of an uneasy world once more.

Carpentry for boys is an excellent book for “Preppers”, it's written in simple terms that a lay person that can understand. It contains everything that a “Prepper” needs to know, in order to build the kinds of structures that you may need to construct in an uncertain future. What's fantastic is that it teaches you how to do so, without an electrical outlet! You'll learn what the basic tools are, how to use them, and even how to do more complicated tasks, like figuring the angles of a roof.

I hope you enjoy reading Carpentry for boys as much as I did, and I'm sure that it will become a well used reference manual for your future SHTF use!

Doug Carlsten

Goat Hollow Press

CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTORY
I. Tools and Their Uses	Page 1
Knowledge of Tools. A Full Kit of Tools. The Hatchet. The Claw Hammer. About Saws—Cross-cut, Rip Saw, Back Saw. Planes—Jack Plane, Smoothing Plane, Pore Plane. Gages. Chisels—Firmer Chisel. Trusses. Saw Clamps. The Grindstone. Oilstone. Miter Box. The Work Bench.
II. How to Grind and Sharpen Tools	Page 10
Care of Tools—-First Requisites. Saws—How to Set. Saw-set Errors. Saw Setting Block. Filing. The Angle of Filing. Filing Pitch. Saw Clamps. Filing Suggestions. The File. Using the File. The Grindstone. In the Use of Grindstones. Correct Way of Holding Tool in Grinding. Care of Stone. Incorrect Way to Hold Tool. Way to Revolve or Turn Grindstone. The Plane. The Gage. Chisels. General Observations.
III. How to Hold and Handle Tools	Page 21
On the Holding of Tools. The Saw. How to Start a Saw. Sawing on a Line. The First Stroke. The Starting Cut for Cross-cutting. Forcing a Saw. The Stroke. The Chinese Saw. Things to Avoid. The Plane. Angle for Holding Planes. Errors to be Avoided. The Gage. Holding the Gage. The Draw-knife.
IV. How to Design Articles	Page 29
Fundamentals of Designing. The Commercial Instinct. First Requirements of Designing. Conventional Styles. The Mission Style. Cabinets. Harmony of Parts. Harmony of Wood.
V. How work is Laid Out	Page 32
Concrete Examples of Work. Dimensions. Laying Out a Table. The Top. The Mortises. The Facing Boards. The Tenons. Tools Used. Chamfered Tenons. The Frame. The Drawer Support. The Table Frame. The Top. The Drawer. How Any Structure is Built Up. Observations About Making a Box. Points. Beveling and Mitering. Proper Terms. Picture Frames. Dovetail Points. Box Points. First Steps in Dovetailing. Cutting Out the Spaces. Tools Used in Laying Out Mortises and Tenons.
VI. The Uses of the Compass and the Square	Page 45
The Compass. Determining Angles. Definition of Degrees. Degrees Without a Compass. How Degrees are Calculated by the Dividers.
VII. How the Different Structural Parts are Designated	Page 50
Importance of Proper Designation. How to Explain Mechanical Forms. Defining Segment and Sector. Arcade, Arch, Buttress, Flying Buttress, Chamfer, Cotter, Crenelated, Crosses, Curb Roof, Cupola, Crown Post, Corbels, Dormer, Dowel, Drip, Detent, Extrados, Engrailed, Facet, Fret, Fretwork, Frontal, Frustrums, Fylfot, Gambrel Roof, Gargoyle, Gudgeon, Guilloche. Half Timbered, Hammer Beam, Header, Hip Roof, Hood Molding, Inclave, Interlacing Arch, Inverted, Inverted Arch, Key Stone, King Post, Label, Louver, Lintel, Lug, M-Roof, Mansard Roof, Newel, Parquetry, Peen, Pendant, Pendastyle, Pedestal, Plinth, Portico, Plate, Queen Post, Quirk Molding, Re-entering Angle, Rafter, Scarfing, Scotia Molding, Sill, Skewback, Spandrel, Strut, Stud, Stile, Tie Beam, Timber, Trammel, Turret, Transom, Valley Roof.
VIII. Drawing and Its Utility	Page 61
Fundamentals in Drawing. Representing Objects. Forming Lines and Shadows. Analysis of Lines and Shadings. How to Show Plain Surfaces. Concave Surfaces. Convex Surfaces. Shadows from a Beam. Flat Effects. The Direction of Light. Raised Surfaces. Depressed Surfaces. Full Shading. Illustrating Cube Shading. Shading Effect. Heavy Lines. Perspectives. True Perspective of a Cube. Isometric Cube. Flattened Perspective. Technical Designations. Sector and Segment. Terms of Angles. Circles and Curves. Irregular Curves. Ellipses and Ovals. Focal Points. Produced Line. Spirals, Perpendicular and Vertical. Signs to Indicate Measurement. Definitions. Abscissa. Angle. Apothegm. Apsides or Apsis. Chord. Cycloid. Conoid. Conic Section. Ellipsoid. Epicycloid. Evolute. Flying Buttress. Focus. Gnomes. Hexagon. Hyperbola. Hypothenuse. Incidental. Isosceles. Triangle. Parabola. Parallelogram. Pelecoid. Polygons. Pyramid. Rhomb. Sector. Segment. Sinusoid. Tangent. Tetrahedron. Vertex.
IX. Moldings, with Practical Illustrations in Embellishing Work	Page 79
Moldings. The Basis of Moldings. The Simplest Moldings. The Astragal. The Cavetto. The Ovolo. The Torus. The Apothegm. The Cymatium. The Ogee. Ogee Recta. Ogee Reversa. The Reedy. The Casement. The Roman-Doric Column. Lesson from the Doric Column. Applying Molding. Base. Embellishments. Straight-faced Molding. Plain Molding. Base. Diversified Uses. Shadows Cast by Moldings.
X. An Analysis of Tenoning, Mortising, Rabbeting and Beading	Page 90
Where Mortises Should be Used. Depth of Mortises. Rule for Mortises. True Mortise Work. Steps in Cutting Mortises. Things to Avoid in Mortising. Lap-and-Butt Joints. Scarfing. The Tongue and Groove. Beading. Ornamental Bead Finish. The Bead and Rabbet. Shading with Beads and Rabbets.
XI. House Building	Page 97
House Building. The Home and Embellishments. Beauty Not Ornamentation. Plain Structures. Colonial Type. The Roof the Keynote. Bungalow Types. General House Building. Building Plans. The Plain Square-Floor Plan. The Rectangular Plan. Room Measurements. Front and Side Lines. The Roof. Roof Pitch. The Foundation. The Sills. The Flooring Joist. The Studding. Setting Up. The Plate. Intermediate Studding. Wall Headers. Ceiling Joist. Braces. The Rafters. The Gutter. Setting Door and Window Frames. Plastering and Finish Work.
XII. Bridges, Trussed Work and Like Structures	Page 112
Bridges. Self-supporting Roofs. Common Trusses. The Vertical Upright Truss. The Warren Girder. The Bowstring Girder. Fundamental Truss Forms.
XIII. The Best Woods for the Beginner	Page 115
The Best Woods. Soft Woods. Hard Woods. The Most Difficult Woods. The Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood. The Easiest Working Woods. Differences in the Working of Woods. Forcing Saws in Wood.
XIV. Wood Turning	Page 118
Advantages of Wood Turning. Simple Turning Lathe. The Rails. The Legs. Centering Blocks. The Tail-stock. The Tool Rest. Materials. The Mandrel. Fly-wheel. The Tools Required.
XV. On the Use of Stains	Page 125
Soft Wood. Use of Stains. Stains as Imitations. Good Taste in Staining. Great Contrasts Bad. Staining Contrasting Woods. Hard Wood Imitations. Natural Effects. Natural Wood Stains. Polishing Stained Surfaces.
XVI. The Carpenter and the Architect	Page 128
XVII. Useful Articles to Make	Page 130
Common Bench. Its Proportions. Square Top Stool. Folding Blacking Box. Convenient Easel. Hanging Book-rack. Sad Iron Holder. Bookcase. Wood-box. Parallel Bars for Boys' Use. Mission Writing Desk. Screen Frame. Mission Chair. Grandfather's Clock. Knockdown and Adjustable Bookcase. Coal Scuttle Frame or Case. Mission Arm Chair. Dog-house. Settle, With Convenient Shelves. Towel Rack. Sofa Framework.
XVIII. Special Tools and Their Uses	Page 144
Bit and Level Adjuster. Miter Boxes. Swivel Arm Uprights. Movable Stops. Angle Dividers. "Odd Job" Tool. Bit Braces. Ratchet Mechanism. Interlocking Jaws. Steel Frame Breast Drills. Horizontal Boring. 3-Jaw Chuck. Planes. Rabbeting, Beading and Matching. Cutter Adjustment. Depth Gage. Slitting Gage. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane. Router Planes. Bottom Surfacing. Door Trim Plane.
XIX. Roofing Trusses	Page 155
Characteristics of Trusses. Tie Beams. Ornamentation. Objects of Beams, Struts and Braces. Utilizing Space. Types of Structures. Gambrel Roof. Purlin Roof. The Princess Truss. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam Truss. The Mansard. Scissors Beam. Braced Collar Beam. Rib and Collar Truss. Hammer-beam Truss. Flying Buttress.
XX. On the Construction of Joints	Page 165
Definition and Uses. Different Types. Bridle Joint. Spur Tenon. Saddle Joints. Joggle Joint. Heel Joints. Stub Tenon. Tusk Tenon. Double Tusk Tenon. Cogged Joints. Anchor Joints. Deep Anchor Joints.
XXI. Some Mistakes and a Little Advice in Carpentry	Page 171
Lessons From Mistakes. Planing the Edge of a Board Straight. Planing it Square. Planing to Dimensions. Holding the Plane. How it Should be Run on the Edge of the Board. Truing With the Weight of the Plane. A Steady Grasp. In Smoothing Boards. Correct Sand-papering. Gluing. Removing Surplus Glue. Work Edge and Work Side. The Scribing and Marking Line. Finishing Surfaces. Sawing a Board Square. The Stroke of the Saw. Sawing Out of True.
GLOSSARY OF WORDS	Page 174

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG.	PAGE
1. A typical work bench	Frontispiece
2. Hatchet	3
3. Hammer	3
4. Common saw	4
5. Plane	5
6. Jack plane bit	5
6a. Fore plane bit	6
7a. Firmer chisel	7
Mortising chisel	7
8. Trestle	7
9. Miter box	8
10. Incorrect saw setting	11
10a. Correct saw setting	11
11. Saw setting device	12
12. Filing angle	12
13. Rip saw	13
14. Cross cut	14
15. Filing clamp	15
16. Grindstone	16
17. Correct manner of holding tool	17
18. Incorrect way of holding tool	17
19. Gage	18
20. Starting a saw	23
21. Wrong sawing angle	24
22. Correct sawing angle	25
23. Thrust cut	25
24. Chinese saw	25
25. Moving angle for plane	26
26. Holding gage	27
27. Laying out table leg	32
28. The first marking line	33
29. Scribing mortise line	33
30. The corner mortises	35
31. The side rail	35
32. Scribing the tenons	35
33. Cross scoring	35
34. The tenon	36
35. Finishing the tenon	36
36. The tenon and mortise	36
37. The drawer support	36
38. Drawer cleats	37
39. Assembled table frame	38
40. The top	39
41. The drawer	40
42. Bevel joint	40
43. Miter joint	40
44. Picture frame joint	41
45. Initial marks for dovetails	42
46. End marks for dovetails	42
47. Angles for dovetails	42
48. Cutting out recesses for dovetails	43
49. Tongues for dovetails	43
50. Recess for dovetails	43
51. Determining angles	47
52. Marking degrees	48
53. Angles from base lines	49
54. Stepping off spaces	49
55. Arcade	58
56. Arch	58
57. Buttress	58
58. Chamfer	58
59. Cooter	58
60. Crenelated	58
61. Crosses	58
62. Curb roof	58
63. Cupola	58
64. Console	58
65. Corbels	58
66. Dormer	58
67. Dowel	58
68. Drips	58
69. Detail	58
70. Extrados	58
71. Engrailed	58
72. Facet	58
73. Fret	58
74. Frontal	58
75. Frustrums	58
76. Fylfat	58
77. Gambrel	58
78. Gargoyle	58
79. Gudgeon	58
80. Guilloche	59
81. Half timbered	59
82. Hammer beam	59
83. Haunches	59
84. Header	59
85. Hip roof	59
86. Hood molding	59
87. Inclave	59
88. Interlacing arch	59
89. Invected	59
90. Inverted arch	59
91. Keystone	59
92. King post	59
93. Label	59
94. Louver	59
95. Lintel	59
96. Lug	59
97. M-roof	59
98. Mansard roof	59
99. Newel post	59
100. Parquetry	59
101. Peen, or pein	59
102. Pendant	59
103. Pentastyle	59
104. Pedestal	59
105. Pintle	60
106. Portico	60
107. Plate	60
108. Queen post	60
109. Quirk molding	60
110. Re-entering	60
111. Rafter	60
112. Scarfing	60
113. Scotia molding	60
114. Sill	60
115. Skew back	60
116. Spandrel	60
117. Strut	60
118. Stud, studding	60
119. Stile	60
120. Trammel	60
121. Turret	60
122. Transom	60
123. Valley roof (124 missing from original	60
125. Plain line book)	62
126. Concave shading	62
127. Convex shading	62
128. Wave shading	62
129. Light past concave surface	62
130. Light past convex surface	63
131. Plain surface	63
132. Outlines	64
133. Raised surface	65
134. Depressed surface	65
135. Shading raised surfaces	65
136. Shading depressed surfaces	65
137. Plain cubical outline	65
138. Indicating cube	66
139. Confused lines	66
140. Heavy horizontal lines	66
141. Heavy vertical lines	66
142. Isometric cube	67
143. Cube and circle	67
144. Flattened perspective	68
145. Angles in isometric cube	69
146. Plain circle	70
147. Sphere shading	70
148. Drawing regular ellipse	71
149. Drawing irregular ellipse	73
150. Drawing spiral	74
151. Abscissa	78
152. Angle	78
153. Apothegm	78
154. Apsides, or apsis	78
155. Chord	78
156. Convolute	78
157. Conic sections	78
158. Conoid	78
159. Cycloid	78
160. Ellipsoid	78
161. Epicycloid	78
162. Evolute	78
163. Focus	78
164. Gnome	78
165. Hyperbola	78
167. Hypothenuse	78
168. Incidence	78
169. Isosceles triangle	78
170. Parabola	78
171. Parallelogram	78
172. Pelecoid	78
173. Polygons	78
174. Pyramid	78
175. Quadrant	78
176. Quadrilaterale	78
177. Rhomb	78
178. Sector	78
179. Segment	78
180. Sinusoid	78
181. Tangent	78
182. Tetrahedron	78
183. Vertex	78
184. Volute	78
185. Band (molding)e	80
186. Astragal (molding)	80
187. Cavetto (molding)	80
188. Ovolo (molding)	80
189. Torus (molding)	81
190. Apophyges (molding)	81
191. Cymatium (molding)	81
192. Ogee-recta (molding)	81
193. Ogee-reversa (molding)	82
194. Bead (molding)	82
195. Casement (molding)	83
196. The Doric column	84
197. Front of cabinet	86
198. Facia board	86
199. Molding on facia board	86
200. Ogee-recta on facia	87
201. Trim below facia	87
202. Trim below ogee	87
203. Trim above base	88
204. Trim above base molding	88
205. Shadows cast by plain moldings	89
206. Mortise and tenon joint	91
207. Incorrect mortising	91
208. Steps in mortising	92
209. The shoulders of tenons	93
210. Lap-and-butt joint	93
211. Panel joint	94
212. Scarfing	94
213. Tongue and groove	95
214. Beading	95
215. Outside beading finish	95
216. Edge beading	95
217. Corner beading	95
218. Point beading	95
219. Round edge beading	96
220. Beading and molding	96
221. First square house plan	100
222. First rectangular house plan	102
223. Square house to scale	102
224. Rectangular house to scale	103
225. Front elevation of square house	103
226. Elevation of rectangular house	104
227. Illustrating one-third pitch	104
228. Illustrating half pitch	104
229. The sills at the corner	105
230. The joist and sills	106
231. The plate splice	106
232. The rafters	107
233. The gutter	108
234. The cornice	109
234a. The finish without gutter	110
235. Common truss	112
236. Upright truss	113
237. Vertical upright truss	113
238. Warren girder	113
239. Extended Warren girder	113
240. Bowstring girder	114
241. Frame details of wood turning lathe	119
242. Tail stock details	119
243. Tool rest details	121
244. Section of mandrel	122
245. View of turning lathe	123
246. Turning tools	124
247. Bench	130
248. Stool	131
249. Blacking box	131
250. Easel	132
251. Hanging book rack	133
252. Book shelf	134
253. Wood box	135
254. Horizontal bars	135
255. Mission desk	136
256. Screen frame	137
257. Mission chair	137
258. Grandfather's clock	138
259. Frame for bookcase	139
260. Coal scuttle case	139
261. Mission arm chair	140
262. Dog house	141
263. Settle	142
264. Towel rack	142
265. Mission sofa frame	143
266. Bit and square level	144
267. Metal miter box	145
268. Parts of metal miter box	145
269. Angle dividers	146
270. An "odd job" tool	147
271. Universal-jaw brace	148
272. Taper-shank bit brace	148
273. Alligator-jaw brace	148
274. Steel frame breast drill	149
275. Steel frame breast drill	149
276. Steel frame breast drill	149
277. Details of metal plane	150
278. Rabbet, matching and dado plane	151
279. Molding and beading plane	152
280. Dovetail tongue and groove plane	152
281. Router planes	153
282. Router planes	153
283. Door trim plane	154
284. Gambrel roof	156
285. Purlin roof	157
286. Princess truss	158
287. Arched, or cambered, tie beam	159
288. The mansard	159
289. Scissors beam	160
290. Braced collar beam	161
291. Rib and collar truss	162
291½. Hammer-beam truss	163
292. Bridle joints	164
293. Spur tenons	165
294. Saddle joints	165
295. Joggle joints	166
296. Framing joints	166
297. Heel joints	166
298. Stub tenon	167
299. Tusk tenon	167
300. Double tusk tenon	168
301. Cogged joints	168
302. Anchor joint	169
303. Deep anchor joint	169

1

TOOLS AND THEIR USES

Knowledge of Tools.—A knowledge of tools and their uses is the first and most important requirement. The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the hammer are well known to all boys; but how to use them, and where to use the different varieties of each kind of tool, must be learned, because each tool grew out of some particular requirement in the art. These uses will now be explained.

A Full Kit of Tools.—A kit of tools necessary for doing any plain work should embrace the following:

1. A Hatchet.
2. A Claw Hammer—two sizes preferred.
3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches long.
4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long.
5. Wooden Mallet.
6. Jack Plane.
7. Smoothing Plane.
8. Compass Saw.
9. Brace.
10. Bits for Brace, ranging from ¼ inch to 1 inch diameter.
11. Several small Gimlets.
12. Square.
13. Compass.
14. Draw-knife.
15. Rule.
16. Two Gages.
17. Set of Firmer Chisels.
18. Two Mortising Chisels.
19. Small Back Saw.
20. Saw Clamps.
21. Miter Box.
22. Bevel Square.
23. Small Hand Square.
24. Pliers.
25. Pair of Awls.
26. Hand Clamps.
27. Set Files.
28. Glue Pot.
29. Oil Stone.
30. Grindstone.
31. Trusses.
32. Work Bench.
33. Plumb Bob.
34. Spirit Level.

The Hatchet.—The hatchet should be ground with a bevel on each side, and not on one side only, as is customary with a plasterer's lathing hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used for trimming off the edges of boards. Unless ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot be controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is preferable to a heavy one. It should never be used for nailing purposes, except in emergencies. The pole of the hammer—that part which is generally used to strike the nail with—is required in order to properly balance the hatchet when used for trimming material.

Fig. 2.

The Claw Hammer.—This is the proper tool for driving nails and for drawing them out. Habits should be formed with the beginner, which will be of great service as the education proceeds. One of these habits is to persist in using the tool for the purpose for which it was made. The expert workman (and he becomes expert because of it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and so with every other tool.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

About Saws.—There are four well-defined kinds. First, a long, flat saw, for cross-cutting. Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes. Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear edge to hold the blade rigid, used for making tenons; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw.

Cross-cuts.—The difference between a cross-cut and a rip saw is, that in the latter the teeth have less pitch and are usually larger than in the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13 and 14) will distinctly show the difference in the teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for ripping along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed at an angle, will ride over the grain or fiber of the wood, and refuse to take hold or bite into the wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used for cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be rough and jagged.

The back saw is used almost exclusively for making tenons, and has uniformly fine teeth so as to give a smooth finish to the wood.

Fig. 5.

Planes.—The plane may be called the æsthetic tool in the carpenter's kit. It is the most difficult tool to handle and the most satisfactory when thoroughly mastered. How to care for and handle it will be referred to in a subsequent chapter. We are now concerned with its uses only. Each complete kit must have three distinct planes, namely, the jack plane, which is for taking off the rough saw print surface of the board. The short smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the inequalities made by the jack plane; and the long finishing plane, or fore plane, which is intended to straighten the edges of boards or of finished surfaces.

Fig. 6. Jack plane bit

The Jack Plane.—This plane has the cutting edge of its blade ground so it is slightly curved (Fig. 6), because, as the bit must be driven out so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface of the wood, the curved cutting edge prevents the corner edges of the bit from digging into the planed surface.

On the other hand, the bits of the smoothing and finishing planes are ground straight across their cutting edges. In the foregoing we have not enumerated the different special planes, designed to make beads, rabbets, tongues and grooves, but each type is fully illustrated, so that an idea may be obtained of their characteristics. (Fig. 6a).

Gages.—One of the most valuable tools in the whole set is the gage, but it is, in fact, the least known. This is simply a straight bar, with a sharpened point projecting out on one side near its end, and having an adjustable sliding head or cheekpiece. This tool is indispensable in making mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel point which projects from the side of the bar, serves to outline and define the edges of the mortises or tenons, so that the cutting line may readily be followed.

Fig. 6a. Fore-plane bit

This is the most difficult tool to hold when in use, but that will be fully explained under its proper head. Each kit should have two, as in making mortises and tenons one gage is required for each side of the mortise or tenon.

Chisels.—Two kinds are found in every kit—one called the firmer (Fig. 7) and the mortising chisel. The firmer has a flat body or blade, and a full set ranges in width from three-eighths of an inch to two inches. The sizes most desirable and useful are the one-half inch, the inch and the inch-and-a-half widths. These are used for trimming out cross grains or rebates for setting door locks and hinges and for numerous other uses where sharp-end tools are required.

Fig. 7.

The Mortising Chisel.—The mortising chisel (Fig. 7a), on the other hand, is very narrow and thick, with a long taper down to the cutting edge. They are usually in such widths as to make them stock sizes for mortises. Never, under any circumstances, use a hammer or hatchet for driving chisels. The mallet should be used invariably.

Fig. 7a.

Fig. 8.

Trusses.—There should be at least two, each three feet in length and twenty inches in height.

Saw Clamps.—These are necessary adjuncts, and should be made of hard wood, perfectly straight and just wide enough to take in the narrow back saw. The illustration shows their shape and form.

The Grindstones.—It is better to get a first-class stone, which may be small and rigged up with a foot treadle. A soft, fine-grained stone is most serviceable, and it should have a water tray, and never be used excepting with plenty of water.

An Oil Stone is as essential as a grindstone. For giving a good edge to tools it is superior to a water stone. It should be provided with a top, and covered when not in use, to keep out dust and grit. These are the little things that contribute to success and should be carefully observed.

The Miter Box.—This should be 14 inches long and 3" by 3" inside, made of hard wood ¾" thick. The sides should be nailed to the bottom, as shown.

Fig. 9.

The Work Bench.—In its proper place we show in detail the most approved form of work bench, fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools, conveniently arranged. In this chapter we are more particularly concerned with the uses of tools than their construction; and we impress on boys the necessity of having a place for everything, and that every tool should be kept in its proper place. A carpenter's shop filled with chips, shavings and other refuse is not a desirable place for the indiscriminate placing of tools. If correct habits are formed at the outset, by carefully putting each tool in its place after using, it will save many an hour of useless hunting and annoyance.

One of the most important things in laying off work, for instance, on trusses, is the disposition of the saw and square. Our illustration shows each truss with side cleats, which will permit the user temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so that it will be handy, and at the same time be out of the way of the work and prevent either of the tools from being thrown to the floor.

In the same way, and for the same purpose, the work bench has temporary holding cleats at the end and a shelf in front, which are particularly desirable, because either a saw or a square is an encumbrance on a work bench while the work is being assembled, and tools of this kind should not be laid flat on a working surface, nor should they be stood in a leaning position against a truss or work bench.

Strictly observe these fundamentals—Never place a tool with the cutting edge toward you. Always have the racks or receptacles so made that the handle may be seized. Don't put a tool with an exposed cutting edge above or below another tool in such a manner that the hand or the tool you are handling can come into contact with the edge. Never keep the nail or screw boxes above the work bench. They should always be kept to one side, to prevent, as much as possible, the bench from becoming a depository for nails. Keep the top of the bench free from tools. Always keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the rear of the bench.

If order was Heaven's first law, it is a good principle to apply it in a workman's shop, and its observance will form a habit that will soon become a pleasure to follow.

2

HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN

TOOLS

Care of Tools.—Dull tools indicate the character of the workman. In an experience of over forty years, I have never known a good workman to keep poorly sharpened tools. While it is true that the capacity to sharpen tools can be acquired only by practice, correct habits at the start will materially assist. In doing this part of the artisan's work, it should be understood that there is a right as well as a wrong way.

There is a principle involved in the sharpening of every tool, which should be observed. A skilled artisan knows that there is a particular way to grind the bits of each plane; that the manner of setting a saw not only contributes to its usefulness, but will materially add to the life of the saw; that a chisel cannot be made to do good work unless its cutting edge is square and at the right working angle.

First Requisite.—A beginner should never attempt a piece of work until he learns how the different tools should be sharpened, or at least learn the principle involved. Practice will make perfect.

Saws.—As the saw is such an important part of the kit, I shall devote some space to the subject. First, as to setting the saw. The object of this is to make the teeth cut a wider kerf than the thickness of the blade, and thereby cause the saw to travel freely. A great many so-called "saw sets" are found in the market, many of them built on wrong principles, as will be shown, and these are incapable of setting accurately.

Fig. 10. Fig.10a.

How to Set.—To set a saw accurately, that is, to drive out each tooth the same distance, is the first requirement, and the second is to bend out the whole tooth, and not the point only.

In the illustration (Fig. 10), the point is merely bent out. This is wrong. The right way is shown in Fig. 10a. The whole tooth is bent, showing the correct way of setting. The reasons for avoiding one way and following the other are: First, that if the point projects to one side, each point or tooth will dig into the wood, and produce tooth prints in the wood, which make a roughened surface. Second, that if there are inequalities in setting the teeth (as is sure to be the case when only the points are bent out), the most exposed points will first wear out, and thereby cause saw deterioration. Third, a saw with the points sticking out causes a heavy, dragging cut, and means additional labor. Where the whole body of the tooth is bent, the saw will run smoothly and easily through the kerf and produce a smooth-cut surface.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Our illustration (Fig. 11) shows a very simple setting block, the principal merit of which is that any boy can make it, and in the use of which he cannot go wrong in setting a tooth.

Simple Saw Setter.—Take a block of wood, a 4 by 4 inch studding, four inches long. Get a piece of metal one-half inch thick and two inches square. Have a blacksmith or machinist bore a quarter-inch hole through it in the center and countersink the upper side so it may be securely fastened in a mortise in the block, with its upper side flush with the upper surface of the block. Now, with a file, finish off one edge, going back for a quarter of an inch, the angle at A to be about 12 degrees.

Fig. 13. Rip-Saw

Filing Angles.—In its proper place will be shown how you may easily calculate and measure degrees in work of this kind. Fig. 12 shows an approximation to the right angle. B, B (Fig. 11) should be a pair of wooden pegs, driven into the wooden block on each side of the metal piece. The teeth of the saw rest against the pegs so that they serve as a guide or a gage, and the teeth of the saw, therefore, project over the inclined part (B) of the metal block. Now, with an ordinary punch and a hammer, each alternate tooth may be driven down until it rests flat on the inclined face (A), so that it is impossible to set the teeth wrongly. When you glance down the end of a properly set saw, you will see a V-shaped channel, and if you will place a needle in the groove and hold the saw at an angle, the needle will travel down without falling out.

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