2011 After the Nuclear Meltdown: Crucial Survival and Medical Data for Nuclear Power Plant and Radiation Accidents and Terrorism - Essential Emergency Information for You and Your Family
U.S. Government, U.S. Military, U.S. Army, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Environmental Protection Agency, Centers for Disease Control, Food and Drug Administration, Department of Defense
Smashwords Edition
Copyright 2011 Progressive Management
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CONTENTS: PART A - GENERAL RADIATION, EMERGENCY, AND MEDICAL INFORMATION
Chapter 1: Radiation Health Effects and Treatments
Chapter 2: Decontamination Procedures
Chapter 3: Radiation Emergencies
Chapter 4: Radiation Terminology * Reactor Concepts Manual
Chapter 5: Radiation and Nuclear Glossary
Chapter 6: Ionizing Radiation, External and Internal Radiation, Veterans and Radiation
Chapter 7: FEMA Radiological Emergency Management Independent Study Course - Excerpt
Chapter 11: Potassium Iodide - Thyroid Blocking Agent
Chapter 13: Overview Of Basic Radiation Physics, Chemistry, And Biology
Chapter 14: Excerpt from Medical Management of Radiological Casualties - Third Edition 2010
Chapter 15: Guide to Leading Medical Websites
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Chapter 1: Radiation Health Effects and Treatments
Radiation can affect the body in a number of ways, and the adverse health effects of exposure may not be apparent for many years. These can range from mild effects, such as skin reddening, to serious effects such as cancer and death, depending on the amount of radiation absorbed by the body (the dose), the type of radiation, and how and for how long the person was exposed.
Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS)
Radiation sickness, known as acute radiation syndrome (ARS), is a serious illness that occurs when the entire body (or most of it) receives a high dose of radiation, usually over a short period of time. Many survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs in the 1940s and many of the firefighters who first responded after the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant accident in 1986 became ill with ARS.
People exposed to radiation will get ARS only if:
The radiation dose was high (doses from medical procedures such as chest X-rays are too low to cause ARS; however, doses from radiation therapy to treat cancer may be high enough to cause some ARS symptoms),
The radiation was penetrating (that is, able to reach internal organs),
The person’s entire body, or most of it, received the dose, and
The radiation was received in a short time, usually within minutes.
The first symptoms of ARS typically are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. These symptoms will start within minutes to days after the exposure, will last for minutes up to several days, and may come and go. Then the person usually looks and feels healthy for a short time, after which he or she will become sick again with loss of appetite, fatigue, fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and possibly even seizures and coma. This seriously ill stage may last from a few hours up to several months.
People with ARS typically also have some skin damage. This damage can start to show within a few hours after exposure and can include swelling, itching, and redness of the skin (like a bad sunburn). There also can be hair loss. As with the other symptoms, the skin may heal for a short time, followed by the return of swelling, itching, and redness days or weeks later. Complete healing of the skin may take from several weeks up to a few years depending on the radiation dose the person’s skin received.
The chance of survival for people with ARS decreases with increasing radiation dose. Most people who do not recover from ARS will die within several months of exposure. The cause of death in most cases is the destruction of the person’s bone marrow, which results in infections and internal bleeding. For the survivors, the recovery process may last from several weeks up to 2 years.
If a radiation emergency occurs that exposes people to high doses of radiation in a short period of time, they should immediately seek medical care from their doctor or local hospital.
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Radiation and Pregnancy
With recent discussion about the possibility of a terrorist attack involving radioactive materials, some people may be concerned about radiation exposure to fetuses.
Prenatal Radiation Exposure
The exposure of a fetus to radiation is referred to as prenatal radiation exposure. This can occur when the mother's abdomen is exposed to radiation from outside her body. Also, a pregnant woman who accidentally swallows or breathes in radioactive materials may absorb that substance into her bloodstream. From the mother's blood, radioactive materials may pass through the umbilical cord to the baby or concentrate in areas of the mother's body near the womb (such as the urinary bladder) and expose the fetus to radiation.
The possibility of severe health effects depends on the gestational age of the fetus at the time of exposure and the amount of radiation it is exposed to. Unborn babies are less sensitive during some stages of pregnancy than others. However, fetuses are particularly sensitive to radiation during their early development, between weeks 2 and 15 of pregnancy. The health consequences can be severe, even at radiation doses too low to make the mother sick. Such consequences can include stunted growth, deformities, abnormal brain function, or cancer that may develop sometime later in life. However, since the baby is shielded by the mother's abdomen, it is protected in the womb from radioactive sources outside the mother's body. Consequently, the radiation dose to the fetus is lower than the dose to the mother for most radiation exposure events.
Pregnant women should consult with their physicians if they have any concern about radiation exposure to their fetus.
Increased Cancer Risk
Radiation exposure before birth can increase a person's risk of getting cancer later in life.
Unborn babies are especially sensitive to the cancer-causing effects of radiation. However, the increased risks depend on the amount of radiation to which the baby was exposed and the amount of time that it was exposed. For example, if the radiation dose to the fetus was roughly equivalent to 500 chest x-rays at one time, the increase in lifetime cancer risk would be less than 2% (above the normal lifetime cancer risk of 40 to 50%).
Other Risks from Radiation Exposure
Health effects other than cancer from radiation exposure are not likely when the dose to the fetus is very low.
Most researchers agree that babies who receive a small dose of radiation (equal to 500 chest x-rays or less) at any time during pregnancy do not have an increased risk for birth defects. The only increased risk to these babies is a slightly higher chance of having cancer later in life (less than 2% higher than the normal expected cancer risk of 40 to 50%).
During the first 2 weeks of pregnancy, the radiation-related health effect of greatest concern is the death of the baby.
The fetus is made up of only a few cells during the first 2 weeks of pregnancy. Damage to one cell can cause the death of the embryo before the mother even knows that she is pregnant. Of the babies that survive, however, few will have birth defects related to the exposure, regardless of how much radiation they were exposed to.
Large radiation doses to the fetus during the more sensitive stages of development (between weeks 2 and 15 of pregnancy) can cause birth defects, especially to the brain.
When a fetus is exposed to large doses of radiation (above the dose received from 500 chest x-rays) during the more sensitive stages of development (especially between weeks 8 and 15 of pregnancy), the health consequences can be severe, especially to the brain. Babies exposed to the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the 8- to 15-week stage of pregnancy were found to have a high rate of brain damage that resulted in lower IQs and even severe mental retardation. They also suffered stunted growth (up to 4% shorter than average people) and an increased risk of other birth defects.
Between the 16th week of pregnancy and birth, radiation-induced health effects (besides cancer) are unlikely unless the fetus receives an extremely large dose of radiation.
In the 16- to 25-week stage of pregnancy, health consequences similar to those seen in the 8- to 15-week stage could occur, but only when the doses are extremely large (more than about 5,000 chest x-rays received at one time). At this dose level, the mother could be showing signs of acute radiation syndrome, which is sometimes known as radiation sickness.
After the 26th week of pregnancy, the radiation sensitivity of the fetus is similar to that of a newborn.
At the 26th week of pregnancy, the fetus is fully developed though not fully grown. Unborn babies exposed to radiation in the womb during this stage of pregnancy are no more sensitive to the effects of radiation than are newborns. This means that birth defects are not likely to occur, and only a slight increase in the risk of having cancer later in life is expected.
Again, it is important for women who are concerned about radiation exposure to their unborn babies to consult their physician. To request more information, you may call the CDC public response line at 1-800-311-3435 or visit the web site at www.cdc.gov/netinfo.htm.
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Radioactive Contamination and Radiation Exposure
Radioactive contamination and radiation exposure could occur if radioactive materials are released into the environment as the result of an accident, an event in nature, or an act of terrorism. Such a release could expose people and contaminate their surroundings and personal property.
What Radioactive Contamination Is
Radioactive contamination occurs when radioactive material is deposited on or in an object or a person. Radioactive materials released into the environment can cause air, water, surfaces, soil, plants, buildings, people, or animals to become contaminated. A contaminated person has radioactive materials on or inside their body.
What External Contamination Is
External contamination occurs when radioactive material, in the form of dust, powder, or liquid, comes into contact with a person's skin, hair, or clothing. In other words, the contact is external to a person's body. People who are externally contaminated can become internally contaminated if radioactive material gets into their bodies.
What Internal Contamination Is
Internal contamination occurs when people swallow or breathe in radioactive materials, or when radioactive materials enter the body through an open wound or are absorbed through the skin. Some types of radioactive materials stay in the body and are deposited in different body organs. Other types are eliminated from the body in blood, sweat, urine, and feces.
What Radiation Exposure Is
Radioactive materials give off a form of energy that travels in waves or particles. This energy is called radiation. When a person is exposed to radiation, the energy penetrates the body. For example, when a person has an x-ray, he or she is exposed to radiation.
How Contamination Differs From Exposure
A person exposed to radiation is not necessarily contaminated with radioactive material. A person who has been exposed to radiation has had radioactive waves or particles penetrate the body, like having an x-ray. For a person to be contaminated, radioactive material must be on or inside of his or her body. A contaminated person is exposed to radiation released by the radioactive material on or inside the body. An uncontaminated person can be exposed by being too close to radioactive material or a contaminated person, place, or thing.
How Exposure or Contamination Can Happen
Radioactive materials could be released into the environment in the following ways:
A nuclear power plant accident
An atomic bomb explosion
An accidental release from a medical or industrial device
Nuclear weapons testing
An intentional release of radioactive material as an act of terrorism
How Radioactive Contamination Is Spread
People who are externally contaminated with radioactive material can contaminate other people or surfaces that they touch. For example, people who have radioactive dust on their clothing may spread the radioactive dust when they sit in chairs or hug other people.
People who are internally contaminated can expose people near them to radiation from the radioactive material inside their bodies. The body fluids (blood, sweat, urine) of an internally contaminated person can contain radioactive materials. Coming in contact with these body fluids can result in contamination and/or exposure.
How Your Home Could Become Contaminated
People who are externally contaminated can spread the contamination by touching surfaces, sitting in a chair, or even walking through a house. Contaminants can easily fall from clothing and contaminate other surfaces. Homes can also become contaminated with radioactive materials in body fluids from internally contaminated people. Making sure that others do not come in contact with body fluids from a contaminated person will help prevent contamination of other people in the household.
How You Can Limit Contamination
Since radiation cannot be seen, smelled, felt, or tasted, people at the site of an incident will not know whether radioactive materials were involved. You can take the following steps to limit your contamination.
1.Get out of the immediate area quickly. Go inside the nearest safe building or to an area to which you are directed by law enforcement or health officials.
2.Remove the outer layer of your clothing. If radioactive material is on your clothes, getting it away from you will reduce the external contamination and decrease the risk of internal contamination. It will also reduce the length of time that you are exposed to radiation.
3.If possible, place the clothing in a plastic bag or leave it in an out-of-the-way area, such as the corner of a room. Keep people away from it to reduce their exposure to radiation. Keep cuts and abrasions covered when handling contaminated items to avoid getting radioactive material in them.
4.Wash all of the exposed parts of your body using lots of soap and lukewarm water to remove contamination. This process is called decontamination. Try to avoid spreading contamination to parts of the body that may not be contaminated, such as areas that were clothed.
5.After authorities determine that internal contamination may have occurred, you may be able to take medication to reduce the radioactive material in your body.
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Facts About DTPA
What is DTPA?
DTPA is a kind of medicine called a chelating agent. Chelating agents work by binding and holding on to radioactive materials or poisons that get into the body. Once bound to a radioactive material or poison, the chelating agent is then passed from the body in the urine. Chelating agents help decrease the amount of time it takes to get a poison out of the body.
What does DTPA do?
When radioactive materials get into the body through breathing, eating, drinking, or through open wounds, we say that “internal contamination” has occurred. Over the past 50 years, almost all cases of internal contamination have happened in people who use radioactive materials in their work. Since the 1960s, doctors have used DTPA as a chelating agent to treat internal contamination from radioactive materials such as americium, plutonium, californium, curium, and berkelium. Currently, DTPA is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for chelation of only three radioactive materials: plutonium, americium, and curium.
What DTPA cannot do
Knowing what DTPA cannot do is also important. DTPA cannot bind all of the radioactive materials that might get into a person’s body after a radiological or nuclear event, such as a terrorist attack with a “dirty bomb.” This medicine cannot prevent radioactive materials from entering the body. DTPA cannot reverse the health effects caused by radioactive materials once these materials have entered the body.
How does DTPA work?
DTPA comes in two forms: calcium (Ca-DTPA) and zinc (Zn-DTPA). Both forms work by tightly chelating (holding on to) plutonium, americium, and curium. These radioactive materials (bound to DTPA) are then passed from the body in the urine. When given within the first day after internal contamination has occurred, Ca-DTPA is about 10 times more effective than Zn-DTPA at chelating plutonium, americium, and curium. After 24 hours have passed, Ca-DTPA and Zn-DTPA are equally effective in chelating these radioactive materials.
How well does DTPA work?
Chelating agents work best when given shortly after radioactive materials or poisons have entered the body. The more quickly a radioactive material or poison is removed from the body, the fewer and less serious the health effects will be. After 24 hours, plutonium, americium, and curium are harder to chelate. However, DTPA can still work to remove these radioactive materials from the body several days or even weeks after a person has been internally contaminated.y.
Who should get DTPA?
Many people could be internally contaminated after a radiological or nuclear terrorist event. People contaminated with small amounts of radioactive materials might not need treatment with DTPA. Doctors and public health authorities will work together to decide who will likely benefit from DTPA treatment.
Infants (including breastfed infants) and children <12 years of age
Either Ca-DTPA or Zn-DTPA may be given to infants and children. The dosage of DTPA to be given should be based on the child ’s size and weight.
Young adults and adults
Young adults and adults internally contaminated with plutonium, americium, or curium should receive Ca-DTPA if treated within the first 24 hours after contamination. After 24 hours, if additional treatment is needed, adults should receive Zn-DTPA. If Zn-DTPA is not available, patients may receive Ca-DTPA together with a vitamin and mineral supplement that contains zinc.
Pregnant women
Unless a pregnant woman has very high levels of internal contamination with plutonium, americium, or curium, treatment should begin and continue with Zn-DTPA. Ca-DTPA should be used in pregnant women only to treat very high levels of internal radioactive contamination. In this case, doctors and public health authorities may prescribe a single dose of Ca-DTPA, together with a vitamin and mineral supplement that contains zinc, as the first treatment. However, after the first dose of Ca-DTPA, treatment should continue 24 hours later with a daily dose of Zn-DTPA, as needed.
Breastfeeding women
Radioactive materials can—and do—get into breast milk. For this reason, CDC recommends that women with internal contamination stop breastfeeding and feed the child baby formula or other food if it is available. If breast milk is the only food available for an infant, nursing should continue. Breastfeeding women who are internally contaminated with plutonium, americium, or curium should be treated with DTPA.
How should DTPA be given?
Currently, DTPA is only available by injection and is not available in an oral (by mouth) form. DTPA may be injected directly into a vein in the arm or dripped into a vein from a bag (intravenously [IV]). Injection and IV drip are good ways of treating people a) who might have been internally contaminated by eating, drinking, or inhaling radioactive materials or b) who have contaminated wounds.
Adults who have inhaled plutonium, americium, or curium can be treated with DTPA mist or spray that is breathed into the lungs. Inhaling DTPA might cause some people, especially those with asthma, to cough or wheeze. The safety and effectiveness of inhaled DTPA has not been shown in children.
How often will I need to get DTPA?
DTPA should be taken only as long as your doctor has determined you need it. In the past, most people who have needed treatment with DTPA have only needed one dose. However, internal contamination with very high levels of plutonium, americium, or curium may require treatment with DTPA every day for weeks or months. The length of treatment with DTPA will depend on a) the amount of radioactive material in your body and b) how well your body gets rid of the radioactive material. Doctors might collect samples of blood, urine, and feces during your treatment with DTPA. These samples can tell the doctors how much radioactivity you are passing and how much remains in your body.
Medical conditions that might make it harmful to receive DTPA
There are no medical reasons why a person who is internally contaminated with plutonium, americium, or curium should not be treated with Ca-DTPA or Zn-DTPA. However, keep the following guidelines in mind:
Because radioactive materials chelated to DTPA are passed out of the body in the urine, DTPA must be used carefully in people whose kidneys do not function properly.
Ca-DTPA should be used carefully in people who have a disease called “hemochromatosis.” (Hemochromatosis is a genetic disease that causes the body to absorb too much iron from foods and other sources, such as vitamins containing iron.)
Breathing treatments using DTPA may not be safe for some people with asthma. If a person with asthma requires treatment with DTPA, the drug should be injected.
DTPA should not be used to treat people who are internally contaminated with the radioactive materials uranium or neptunium.
What are the possible risks and side effects of DTPA?
DTPA does not build up in the body or cause long-term health effects. People who are given repeat doses of Ca-DTPA within a short period of time may have nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, chills, fever, itching, and muscle cramps. Other side effects may include headache, lightheadedness, chest pain, and a metallic taste in the mouth.
Ca-DTPA (and Zn-DTPA) can chelate certain important minerals that the body needs (zinc, magnesium, and manganese). For example, the body needs zinc to make red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Therefore, DTPA treatment may interfere with the normal production of blood cells. As a precaution, patients receiving long-term treatment with DTPA should be given a vitamin and mineral supplement that contains zinc.
Where can I get DTPA?
CDC has included both Ca-DTPA and Zn-DTPA in the Strategic National Stockpile, a collection of medicines and medical supplies that CDC maintains for emergencies. During an emergency, these medicines and medical supplies are given to doctors and hospitals for treatment of patients.
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Facts About Neupogen®
When a person has received a very high dose of radiation, destruction of the bone marrow, potentially resulting in uncontrolled bleeding and infection, is a major concern. To help the recovery of the bone marrow, growth factors that stimulate the blood cells to multiply can be used. Filgrastim (trade name Neupogen®), is a drug that was approved for use by the FDA in 1991 for cancer patients with bone marrow damage due to chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Treated patients have had fewer infections, less need for intravenous antibiotics, and shortened hospital stays than those who did not receive the drug. Neupogen may also be useful for patients who have bone marrow damage from accidental exposures to high doses of radiation and it is expected to provide similar benefits.
What Neupogen Is
Filgrastim (trade name Neupogen®) is a human granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) produced by recombinant DNA technology. It is a specific type of cytokine that stimulates the growth of white blood cells.
What Cytokines Are
Cytokines are hormone-like proteins that act as communicators between cells. They can relay messages between cells, telling them to grow, stop growing, move to a trouble spot, or otherwise change the cell's function. Neupogen® is a specific type of cytokine that stimulates the growth of white blood cells.
Use of Neupogen® to Treat Persons Accidentally Exposed to High Doses of Radiation
Just like a cancer patient who has received chemotherapy or radiation therapy, a person who has received a high dose of radiation may experience bone marrow destruction, possibly resulting in uncontrolled bleeding and infection. Since Neupogen® has been used successfully for cancer patients to stimulate the growth of the white blood cells, making them less vulnerable to infections, it is expected to help patients who have bone marrow damage from very high doses of radiation in much the same way.
How Neupogen® Works
Patients who receive very high doses of radiation often are left with very few white blood cells. The patients' own bone marrow will eventually create new blood cells, but this is a slow process. And until the white blood cell counts rise sufficiently, the patients are at a high risk of death from infection. Neupogen® can speed up the process of white blood cell creation, reducing the time that the patient is vulnerable to infection.
Who Can Take Neupogen
People may be prescribed Neupogen® following chemotherapy or radiation therapy to assist in their recovery. Also, people may be prescribed Neupogen® following a high dose of radiation from a radiation emergency.
Neupogen® is safe for most adults, but should not be taken by people who have known hypersensitivity to E. coli-derived proteins, filgrastim, or any component of filgrastim. Children and pregnant women should take Neupogen® with caution. It is not known if Neupogen® is excreted in human milk, so breastfeeding women should take Neupogen with caution as well.
Side Effects of Neupogen®
The possible side effects of Neupogen® include fever, diarrhea, skin rash and weakness. The most common side effect is mild to moderate bone pain.
How Neupogen® Is Given
Neupogen® is given by injection under the skin or through intravenous infusion.
What the Treatment Plan Is
The treatment plan is to give 5 micrograms per kilogram of patient weight (mcg/kg) of G-CSF filgrastim (Neupogen®) daily for up to 2 weeks, either by injection or intravenous infusion.
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Emergency Preparedness and Response for Radiation Emergencies
What is emergency preparedness?
Emergency preparedness means taking action to be ready for emergencies before they happen. The objective of emergency preparedness is to simplify decisionmaking during emergencies. Over the years, the combined efforts of the NRC, FEMA, nuclear power plant operators, State and local officials, as well as thousands of volunteers and first responders (such as police, firefighters, and medical response personnel), have produced comprehensive emergency preparedness programs that assure the adequate protection of the public in the event of a radiological emergency. The emergency preparedness process incorporates the means to rapidly identify, evaluate and react to a wide spectrum of emergency conditions. Emergency plans are dynamic and are routinely reviewed and updated to reflect an ever changing environment.
How has emergency preparedness changed since the September 11, 2001, attacks?
After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, emergency preparedness was strengthened. For example, NRC has verified that its regulations and guidance are appropriate for all types of emergency events, including terrorism. On the State and local level, many communities are upgrading their emergency response capabilities and modernizing communication systems, developing transportation analyses and assessments to improve traffic flow, improving local education and awareness, and developing interagency and cross-boundary coordination plans. These enhancements will improve emergency response whether the initiating event is a natural disaster or a terrorist act.
Who is responsible for emergency preparedness oversight?
The NRC is responsible for oversight of a nuclear facility's emergency preparedness, and FEMA is responsible for oversight of preparedness outside the nuclear facility’s boundary. The NRC issues reactor operating licenses, which require an acceptable, integrated emergency plan (i.e., both onsite and offsite planning) that provides reasonable assurance that adequate protective measures can, and will, be taken in the event of a radiological emergency.
What are the regulations governing emergency preparedness for nuclear reactors?
Emergency planning for the existing nuclear power plants, licensed under the 10 CFR Part 50 process, is evaluated under 10 CFR 50.47, Appendix E to Part 50, and includes the guidance in NUREG-0654/FEMA-REP-1, Rev. 1.
Will the emergency planning requirements for new nuclear power reactors be any different from those for currently operating reactors?
The requirements for emergency planning established in 10 CFR Part 50 and associated guidance will be applicable to new reactors.
How do I know that NRC licensees are complying with emergency preparedness regulations and guidance?
The NRC performs oversight of emergency preparedness through performance indicators and through inspection. NRC inspectors dedicate thousands of hours to routine inspections, observations of drill and exercises, review of licensee corrective actions, as well as emergency plan changes. In addition, licensees are required to conduct a full-scale exercise involving Federal, State, and local agencies every two years. These exercises are evaluated by the NRC and FEMA. The results and, if necessary, enforcement of these emergency preparedness oversight activities are available for public review and can be found on the NRC Operating Reactor Oversight Web page.
How are NRC Inspectors qualified to inspect for emergency preparedness?
NRC emergency preparedness inspectors are trained through a rigorous two-year qualification program which includes formal coursework and numerous inspections. The qualification process ends with each inspector sitting for a qualification board of senior subject-matter experts. Additionally, many of NRC's emergency preparedness inspectors have prior experience in the nuclear industry so they have first-hand knowledge of NRC policies and licensee programs. Emergency preparedness inspector qualification requirements are found in Manual Chapter 1245, Appendix C6 .
What is “reasonable assurance”?
Reasonable assurance is the recognition that “adequate protective measures can and will be taken in the event of a radiological emergency.” Reasonable assurance is based on licensees complying with NRC regulations and guidance, as well as licensees and offsite response organizations demonstrating that they can effectively implement emergency plans and procedures during periodic evaluated exercises.
What happens if the NRC does not make a finding of reasonable assurance?
When, as described, in 10 CFR 50.54(s)(2)(ii) and 50.54(s)(3) of its regulations, the NRC finds the state of emergency preparedness does not provide reasonable assurance that adequate protective measures can and will be taken in the event of a radiological emergency, the NRC will notify the affected licensee accordingly and start the"120-day clock." If after four months ("120-day clock") the deficiencies are not corrected, the Commission will determine whether the reactor shall be shut down until such deficiencies are remedied or whether other enforcement action is appropriate.
How can the public become involved in the emergency planning and preparedness process?
One way is by attending public meetings hosted by the NRC. The public can keep abreast of NRC's regulatory activities through a variety of open meetings, including Commission meetings, advisory committee meetings, hearings, and staff meetings open to the public. The latter includes most technical meetings with licensees, trade organizations, and public interest groups.
What are the 10-mile and 50-mile emergency planning zones?
Two emergency planning zones (EPZs) around each nuclear power plant help plan a strategy for protective actions during an emergency. The plume exposure pathway EPZ has a radius of about 10 miles from the reactor. Predetermined protection action plans are in place for this EPZ and are designed to avoid or reduce dose from potential exposure of radioactive materials. These actions include sheltering, evacuation, and the use of potassium iodide where appropriate. The ingestion exposure pathway EPZ has a radius of about 50 miles from the reactor. Predetermined protection action plans are in place for this EPZ and are designed to avoid or reduce dose from potential ingestion of radioactive materials. These actions include a ban of contaminated food and water.
Will radiation from a nuclear power plant accident spread out over the entire 10-mile EPZ?
A radioactive plume (cloud with radioactive materials discharged from the nuclear power plant during an accident) travels in the same direction as the wind rather than spread out over the entire 10-mile EPZ. The plume characteristics are determined by natural environmental factors, such as wind speed, wind direction, turbulence due to solar heating, humidity, and ground temperatures. As radioactivity enters the plume, it travels downwind and expands in the horizontal and vertical directions. The expansion of the plume causes the concentration of the radioactivity in the plume to decrease with increasing downwind distance. The radiation dose to persons in the plume is a function of the concentration of the radioactivity at any point in the plume. So, as the plume expands downwind, the concentration decreases as does the radiation dose.
What if conditions don't allow for an evacuation?
Evacuation is not the only protective action available to the public. In some situations sheltering may provide protection that is equal to or even greater than evacuation. Sheltering may be the preferred protective action in cases where weather, competing events, or short-term releases are factors.
What are evacuation time estimates?
Evacuation time estimates are tools to assist offsite authorities to determine evacuation routes, traffic control plans,and impediments to traffic flow. These time estimates are used by State and local authorities when they make protective action decisions. Under inclement weather conditions, the time to evacuate may be longer, so the decision may be made only to evacuate a small portion of the area and advise sheltering for the remainder of the population. Evacuation time estimates are not linked, in any way, to the doses at which protective actions are recommended.
Will sheltering result in a higher radiation dose than evacuation?
When the public evacuates, they are removed from further exposure to radioactive materials, and under most conditions, evacuation is preferred. However, there are many instances where sheltering may be the preferred protective action. Sheltering may provide protection that is equal to or greater than evacuation, taking into consideration such factors as weather, competing events, fast-breaking or short-term release, or traffic considerations. As an example, during a relatively short term release, it may be prudent to recommend that the population shelter in place, such as at home, the office, school, or shopping mall. Depending on the type of building, sheltering can result in a radiation dose reduction of up to 80% compared to being outdoors.
Have there been any evacuations as a result of nuclear emergencies?
There has been only one nuclear emergency that resulted in an evacuation since the first nuclear power reactor started producing power in 1957. The accident at the Three Mile Island Unit 2 (TMI-2) nuclear power plant near Middletown, Pennsylvania, on March 28, 1979, was the most serious in U.S. commercial nuclear power plant operating history. The evacuation was recommended for pregnant women and preschool-age children within a 5-mile radius of the plant.
What are “shadow evacuations”?
The term “shadow evacuations” is used to describe spontaneous evacuations by people outside of any officially declared evacuation zone(s).
Are emergency preparedness exercises effective?
Yes, emergency preparedness exercises have been proven to be effective in the success of actual emergencies. Numerous examples, such as the emergency response to the 1989 San Francisco earthquake, have demonstrated that good training, drills, and exercises are the key to success.
What is potassium iodide?
Potassium iodide is a salt, similar to table salt. Its chemical symbol is KI. It is routinely added to table salt to make it "iodized." Potassium iodide, if taken in time and at the appropriate dosage, blocks the thyroid gland's uptake of radioactive iodine and thus could reduce the risk of thyroid cancers and other diseases that might otherwise be caused by exposure to radioactive iodine that could be dispersed in a severe nuclear accident.
What is the role of potassium iodide in radiological emergency preparedness?
The purpose of radiological emergency preparedness is to protect people from the effects of radiation exposure after an accident at a nuclear power plant. Evacuation is the most effective protective measure in the event of a radiological emergency because it protects the whole body (including the thyroid gland and other organs) from all radionuclides and all exposure pathways. However, in situations when evacuation is not feasible and in-place sheltering is substituted as an effective protective action, administering potassium iodide is a reasonable, prudent, and inexpensive supplement to evacuation and sheltering.
Potassium iodide is a special kind of protective measure in that it offers very specialized protection. Potassium iodide protects the thyroid gland against internal uptake of radioiodines that may be released in the unlikely event of a nuclear reactor accident.
Why is KI only being provided to the 10-mile EPZ around nuclear power plants?
The population closest (within the 10-mile EPZ) to the nuclear power plant is at greatest risk of exposure to radiation and radioactive materials. The purpose of radiological emergency preparedness is to protect people from the effects of radiation exposure after an accident at a nuclear power plant. Evacuation is the most effective protective measure in the event of a radiological emergency because it protects the whole body (including the thyroid gland and other organs) from all radionuclides and all exposure pathways. However, in situations when evacuation is not feasible, in-place sheltering is substituted as an effective protective action. In addition, administering potassium iodide is a reasonable, prudent, and inexpensive supplement to both evacuation and sheltering. When the population is evacuated out of the area, and potentially contaminated foodstuffs are prohibited, the risk from further radioactive iodine exposure to the thyroid gland is essentially eliminated.
Will KI be effective in case of a terrorist attack or dirty bomb?
In a terrorist attack either at a nuclear power plant or with a dirty bomb, radioactive iodine would have to be released in order for potassium iodide (KI) to be needed. Potassium iodide protects the thyroid gland only against the internal uptake of radioiodines.
A nuclear power plant will make protective action recommendations based on current emergency plans, which may include the recommendation to take KI as a supplement to evacuation and/or sheltering. In the case of a dirty bomb, protective actions will be made according to the threat presented. If the bomb contained radioactive iodine, then the use of KI may be appropriate. However, radioactive iodine is not considered to be a viable component of a dirty bomb due to its relatively short half-life and the difficulties in obtaining significant quantities.
About Emergency Response
What's the difference between "emergency preparedness" and "emergency response"?
Emergency preparedness generally refers to actions which can and should be performed prior to an emergency. Actions, such as planning and coordination meetings, procedure writing, team training, emergency drills and exercises, and prepositioning of emergency equipment, all are part of "emergency preparedness."
Emergency response refers to actions taken in response to an actual, ongoing event. Good planning leads to organized and effective emergency response.
What kinds of emergencies could occur at a nuclear facility?
Similar to other industrial facilities, a nuclear facility may encounter failures involving mechanical equipment, electrical power, instrumentation and control systems, or personnel error. Although significant efforts are made to minimize these occurrences, it is certainly prudent to assume that failures will occur, and that plans and procedures should be in place to prevent the initial failure from causing additional failures or threatening public health and safety.
Nuclear facilities contain radioactive materials within systems, structures, or components commonly referred to as "barriers." Several of these barriers must fail before a significant release of radioactive materials can occur. The severity of an emergency at a nuclear facility then, can be linked to the number of radiation barriers which are being threatened or have been damaged.
Nuclear power plants, research and test reactors, nuclear materials licensees, and fuel cycle facilities use emergency classifications to indicate a level of risk to the public.
Are all NRC licensees required to have offsite emergency response plans?
Yes. All NRC licensees are required to provide reasonable assurance that adequate measures can and will be taken in the event of an emergency. For nuclear power plants, both onsite and offsite emergency response plans are required. This is because a severe accident at a nuclear power plant could reasonably be expected to impact individuals located some distance away from the power plant.
For large fuel cycle and material facilities, only an onsite emergency response plan is required. No offsite response plan is needed since accidents at these facilities are not expected to impact individuals located much beyond the site boundary. (This arrangement is similar to that of other industrial facilities in which accidents are dealt with by offsite firefighters and police routinely without a formal offsite response plan.)
For smaller licensees, no formal response plans are required since accidents would have no significant impact outside the facility. These licensees are required to have appropriate internal procedures in place to protect workers and control radioactive materials.
What is a "meltdown"? Can a meltdown be prevented?
A nuclear reactor is fueled with many thousands of ceramic uranium pellets located within 12-foot long metal fuel rods. As the reactor performs its intended function (uranium atoms fission, releasing heat energy, generating steam for electrical power production) many of the uranium atoms are converted into new atoms which are highly energetic and highly radioactive. Under normal conditions these highly radioactive "fission products" remain safely within the confines of the metal fuel rod. During a severe malfunction, it is possible that the energy released by the fission products could be sufficient enough to damage the metal fuel rod, and even melt the ceramic fuel pellet itself. Diagram of fuel pellet, metal fuel rod, and nuclear fuel assembly.
Fuel pellet melting is a significant concern because it indicates that multiple protection systems and radiation barriers have failed and that other systems and barriers are about to be challenged. Accidents of this magnitude are classified at the highest severity level (general emergency).
A meltdown is prevented by ensuring that sufficient cooling water is always available to remove fission product heat from the reactor. Multiple water systems, pumps, and flow paths are maintained to ensure that water will always be available for this purpose. But in case all these precautions fail, the emergency response organization must always be ready.
Are nuclear facilities required to notify the NRC and offsite authorities if conditions indicate that an emergency is underway (or might develop?)
Yes. Those requirements can be found in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 50.72. Any situation which would result in one of the four emergency classes must be immediately communicated to State and local emergency response officials, and then to the NRC Operations Center.
What is the International Nuclear Event Scale?
The International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) is a tool intended to promptly and consistently communicate to the public the safety significance of reported events at nuclear installations.
Does the NRC participate in the INES system?
The NRC has participated in the INES since 1993. Under this participation, the NRC rated all events at reactor facilities which resulted in the declaration of an Alert or higher emergency classification. A total of 32 INES reports were transmitted to the IAEA during the period from February 1993 through September 2001. In 2001, the NRC modified its level of participation in the INES to include the review of all events, including materials and transportation events, for potential rating using the INES. The NRC staff has developed methods and procedures to incorporate the INES rating process into the agency's events assessment program.
How often does the NRC participate in emergency response exercises?
NRC Headquarters typically participates in five emergency response exercises each year, selected from among the list of full-scale, FEMA-graded exercises required of each U.S. nuclear power plant and fuel facility. On-scene participants include the NRC licensee, NRC Regional personnel, State, county, and local emergency response agencies. NRC also observes the onsite licensee response during the exercise. FEMA reviews the offsite response under the emergency plan implemented by the local and State governments. NRC will also participate in approximately six other exercises each year. This participation is usually performed with only regional staff. See Emergency Exercise Schedule.
What's the difference between a "drill" and an "exercise"?
A drill is a test of a portion of the response organization (for example, a fire drill tests a facility's firefighting teams and the individuals in the vicinity of the area selected for that particular drill). An "exercise" typically tests many facets of the response organization and often involves close coordination between licensee (onsite) and State and local (offsite) response organizations.
Do other Federal agencies participate in these exercises?
Typically, other Federal agencies receive notification and regular status updates during an exercise. Several agencies send representatives to the NRC Operations Center to assist NRC in simulating a coordinating Federal response under the Nuclear/Radiological Incident Annex to the National Framework Plan . Other agencies who respond include the following:
The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) , is kept informed of an event status. DHS may require NRC staffing of the Homeland Security Operations Center (HSOC) to increase coordination and reach-back capability.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) , which is responsible for coordinating the non-radiological portion of the federal offsite response. FEMA becomes especially active if the President declares that the event is a major emergency under the Stafford Act.
The Department of Energy (DOE) , which can conduct overflights to assess the extent of radiation releases offsite. DOE also establishes a Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center or FRMAC to coordinate all radiological measurements from various field teams. The FRMAC helps ensure that decisions about protecting people will be made using all available and assessed data.
The Department of Agriculture (USDA) , decides when livestock should be placed on stored feed or sheltered and makes other decisions regarding the food supply.
The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) , is involved for general health concerns.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) , addresses non-radiological environmental hazards associated with the response (e.g., chemical releases, oil spills).
The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) , supports the response by providing weather condition advisories.
The Department of State (DOS) , will notify other countries under the notification protocols we have established. The NRC can notify Mexico and Canada directly, and also notifies the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) for distribution to other countries.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) , becomes involved if criminal activities have occurred or are threatened on or near the nuclear facility.
Who makes the decision for people to take shelter or evacuate if an emergency were to occur?
The State (or in some cases, a county or local official) makes the decision, based on information from the licensee. The State (local) officials may discuss the situation with NRC and seek its advice, but the ultimate decision is the responsibility of the State (or local) official.
How will people learn if they need to take shelter or evacuate?
Persons located within about a ten-mile radius of a nuclear facility will be notified by means of sirens, tone-alert radios, and similar alert mechanisms. Persons living in the vicinity of a nuclear power plant must be advised annually regarding how they should respond and the procedures that they should follow. This is part of the licensee's Emergency Preparedness Plan, which the NRC and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) must review and approve.
How does the NRC investigate incidents or events that happen with their licensees?
Incident investigation is a formal process conducted for the purpose of accident prevention. The NRC Incident Investigation program provides a formal, structured, and appropriately measured NRC investigative response to significant operational events based on their safety significance. This process includes gathering and analyzing information; determining findings and conclusions, which include the causes of a significant operational event; and disseminating the investigation results for NRC, industry, and public review. NRC Management Directive 8.3, NRC Incident Investigation Program provides the details of this process.
How does the NRC track licensee events and share potential generic issues with the industry?
The NRC staff evaluates event reports to identify significant weaknesses in plant design and operation, or equipment problems that may systematically affect several plants of a given design. When Generic Safety Issues are identified, NRC staff formally tracks them, and may initiate formal communications with industry stakeholders to provide awareness and resolution of such issues.
How does the Federal government respond to a radiation emergency?
The Federal Government’s response to a radiation emergency is guided by the National Response Framework , which is an all hazards plan for domestic incident response.
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Safety and Security Improvements at Nuclear Plants
Post 9-11 Actions
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) - responsible for protecting public health and the environment from potential hazards involved in using nuclear materials - took prompt action to enhance safety and security, and has comprehensively re-evaluated security at nuclear power plants and other facilities it regulates.
Since September 11, 2001, NRC has strengthened security at nuclear facilities by working with national experts using state-of-the-art structural and fire analyses to realistically predict the consequences of terrorist acts. These studies confirm that, given robust plant designs and the additional enhancements to safety, security, and emergency preparedness and response, it is unlikely that significant radiological consequences would result from a wide range of terrorist attacks, including one from a large commercial aircraft.
Actions taken by Federal aviation safety and security agencies - Federal Air Marshals, reinforced cockpit doors, airport passenger and baggage screening, improved ability to detect deviation from planned flight paths and greater military aircraft intercept capability - have reduced the likelihood that large commercial aircraft could be used to attack critical infrastructure, including a nuclear facility. Other actions, such as improved communication between military surveillance authorities, NRC, and its licensees, would allow plant operators to prepare the plant for safe shutdown should it be necessary. These actions, coupled with those taken by the NRC and the nuclear industry, are an integral part of the government’s overall strategy for protecting the nation’s critical infrastructure.
NRC has strengthened requirements at nuclear power plants and enhanced coordination with Federal, State and local organizations since 9-11
NRC major actions include:
Ordered plant owners to sharply increase physical security programs to defend against a more challenging adversarial threat;
Required more restrictive site access controls for all personnel;
Enhanced communication and liaison with the Intelligence Community;
Ordered plant owners to improve their capability to respond to events involving explosions or fires;
Enhanced readiness of security organizations by strengthening training and qualifications programs for plant security forces;
Required vehicle checks at greater stand-off distances;
Enhanced force-on-force exercises to provide a more realistic test of plant capabilities to defend against an adversary force; and
Improved liaison with Federal, State, and local agencies responsible for protection of the national critical infrastructure through integrated response training.
Safety and security studies show that a radiological release affecting public health and safety is unlikely from a terrorist attack, including large commercial aircraft
Power plants are among the most hardened commercial structures in the country and are designed to withstand extreme events, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and earthquakes;
Power plants have redundant safety systems and are operated by highly trained staff;
Multiple barriers protect the reactor and prevent or minimize off-site releases;
With mitigation strategies and measures in place, the probability of damaging the reactor core and releasing radioactivity that could affect public health and safety is low;
Significant releases due to a terrorist attack on a spent fuel pool are very unlikely;
It is highly unlikely that a significant release of radioactivity would occur from a dry spent fuel storage cask; and
No release of radioactive material is expected from an aircraft attack on a transportation cask.
Time is available to protect the public in unlikely event of a radiation release
If a radiation release did occur, there would be time to implement mitigating actions and offsite emergency plans at power plants, spent fuel pools, and dry-cask storage installations; and
Safety and security studies confirm that NRC's emergency planning basis remains valid.
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Emergency Classification
An Emergency Classification is a set of plant conditions which indicate a level of risk to the public. Both nuclear power plants and research and test reactors use the four emergency classifications listed below in order of increasing severity. The vast majority of events reported to the NRC are routine in nature and do not require activation of our incident response program.
Recognizing that security-related events may involve different response actions from the licensees, the NRC issued Bulletin 2005-02, Emergency Preparedness and Response Actions for Security-Based Events. This bulletin identifies minor changes to the emergency classification levels to reflect emphasis of post-9/11 conditions.
Notification of Unusual Event - Under this category, events are in process or have occurred which indicate potential degradation in the level of safety of the plant. No release of radioactive material requiring offsite response or monitoring is expected unless further degradation occurs.
Alert - If an alert is declared, events are in process or have occurred which involve an actual or potential substantial degradation in the level of safety of the plant. Any releases of radioactive material from the plant are expected to be limited to a small fraction of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) protective action guides (PAGs) .
Site Area Emergency - A site area emergency involves events in process or which have occurred that result in actual or likely major failures of plant functions needed for protection of the public. Any releases of radioactive material are not expected to exceed the EPA PAGs except near the site boundary.
General Emergency - A general emergency involves actual or imminent substantial core damage or melting of reactor fuel with the potential for loss of containment integrity. Radioactive releases during a general emergency can reasonably be expected to exceed the EPA PAGs for more than the immediate site area.
The following are emergency classifications for nuclear materials and fuel cycle facility licensees:
Alert - Events may occur, are in progress, or have occurred that could lead to a release of radioactive material[s], but the release is not expected to require a response by an offsite response organization to protect people offsite.
Site Area Emergency - Events may occur, are in progress, or have occurred that could lead to a significant release of radioactive material[s], and the release could require a response by offsite response organizations to protect people offsite.
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§ 50.72 Immediate notification requirements for operating nuclear power reactors.
(a) General requirements.1 (1) Each nuclear power reactor licensee licensed under §§ 50.21(b) or 50.22 holding an operating license under this part or a combined license under part 52 of this chapter after the Commission makes the finding under § 52.103(g), shall notify the NRC Operations Center via the Emergency Notification System of:
(i) The declaration of any of the Emergency Classes specified in the licensee's approved Emergency Plan; 2 or
(ii) Those non-emergency events specified in paragraph (b) of this section that occurred within three years of the date of discovery.
(2) If the Emergency Notification System is inoperative, the licensee shall make the required notifications via commercial telephone service, other dedicated telephone system, or any other method which will ensure that a report is made as soon as practical to the NRC Operations Center.3
(3) The licensee shall notify the NRC immediately after notification of the appropriate State or local agencies and not later than one hour after the time the licensee declares one of the Emergency Classes.
(4) The licensee shall activate the Emergency Response Data System (ERDS) 4 as soon as possible but not later than one hour after declaring an Emergency Class of alert, site area emergency, or general emergency. The ERDS may also be activated by the licensee during emergency drills or exercises if the licensee's computer system has the capability to transmit the exercise data.
(5) When making a report under paragraph (a)(1) of this section, the licensee shall identify:
(i) The Emergency Class declared; or
(ii) Paragraph (b)(1), ``One-hour reports,'' paragraph (b)(2), ``Four-hour reports,'' or paragraph (b)(3), ``Eight-hour reports,'' as the paragraph of this section requiring notification of the non-emergency event.
(b) Non-emergency events--(1) One-hour reports. If not reported as a declaration of an Emergency Class under paragraph (a) of this section, the licensee shall notify the NRC as soon as practical and in all cases within one hour of the occurrence of any deviation from the plant's Technical Specifications authorized pursuant to Sec. 50.54(x) of this part.
(2) Four-hour reports. If not reported under paragraphs (a) or (b)(1) of this section, the licensee shall notify the NRC as soon as practical and in all cases, within four hours of the occurrence of any of the following:
(i) The initiation of any nuclear plant shutdown required by the plant's Technical Specifications.
(ii)-(iii) [Reserved]
(iv)(A) Any event that results or should have resulted in emergency core cooling system (ECCS) discharge into the reactor coolant system as a result of a valid signal except when the actuation results from and is part of a pre-planned sequence during testing or reactor operation.
(B) Any event or condition that results in actuation of the reactor protection system (RPS) when the reactor is critical except when the actuation results from and is part of a pre-planned sequence during testing or reactor operation.
(v)-(x) [Reserved]
(xi) Any event or situation, related to the health and safety of the public or onsite personnel, or protection of the environment, for which a news release is planned or notification to other government agencies has been or will be made. Such an event may include an onsite fatality or inadvertent release of radioactively contaminated materials.