The Enchiridion of Epictetus
David Tuffley
Until
‘kings were philosophers
or philosophers were kings’
there
will be injustice in the world
- Plato
Published by David Tuffley at Smashwords
Copyright 2011 David Tuffley
Smashwords Edition, License Notes
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Dedicated
to my beloved Nation of Four
Concordia
Domi – Foris Pax
Contents
Introduction to the Enchiridion
Introduction to the Enchiridion
The Enchiridion (Greek for Handbook) of Epictetus is a favourite text of the Stoic school of philosophy. Compiled by Arrian, a former pupil around the time of Epictetus’ death in 135 AD, this enduring text is a compilation of lecture notes based on Epictetus’ lessons. It has long been considered an excellent manual of practical philosophy.
Epictetus (55 – 135 AD) was born at Hierapolis in what is now Turkey. Sold to Epaphroditos, who was secretary to Emperor Nero, he spent his youth in Rome. He developed a consuming passion for philosophy. With the permission of his master, Epictetus was allowed to study Stoic philosophy. Over time, as his learning and wisdom grew, he became a respectable citizen of Rome, and an esteemed philosopher.
Epictetus, unlike some of his metaphysical forebears, concentrated on making philosophy practical. How it could be used beneficially in everyday life. The timeless message of the Enchiridion is as practical today as it was in ancient Greece. Perhaps this is where the Enchiridion gets its enduring power and long-life.
A central theme of the work is to clearly distinguish between what we can and cannot control in life. We can control what we think, and how we act. We cannot control what others think and how they act. We must put our effort into what we can control and refuse to worry about what we cannot.
Following on from this is to limit our expectations. If we understand we cannot control people, then we will not expect them to behave in a certain way, and we will not get upset or disappointed when they do something different.
Another theme is to not become attached to people and things such that when they disappear from our lives, we will be upset. This idea bears a striking resemblance to the central Buddhist tenet of non-attachment to impermanence.
Epictetus urges us to observe carefully the patterns of Nature and learn to live in harmony with them. This includes accepting what happens in life with grace, without resistance.
It is how we think about events that makes them good or bad, not the event itself. Our beliefs create our reality. The same event could be interpreted by two people in diametrically opposed ways, according to their belief.
These have been a sampler of the many practical recommendations to be found in this remarkable book.
The first English translation was published around 1567, though this book is based on Elizabeth Carter’s 18th Century translation.
Stoic philosophy
Stoicism has come to have a narrow and somewhat negative meaning of being unemotional or indifferent to suffering, however this is a distortion. In a world of easy fixes, and mass consumption where pleasure is seen as the greatest good, Stoicism seems oddly archaic and irrelevant. Notwithstanding this, its real message has great relevance in the 21st Century.
Influenced by the earlier work of Socrates and Diogenes of Sinope, the Stoic school of philosophy was founded around 300 BC by Zeno of Citium. Zeno taught that a wise person should not allow their emotions to rule them; instead they should master their emotions and use logic to think rationally about how to behave in life. He urged his followers to study carefully the laws of Nature and to live in harmony with them.
A central point in Stoic philosophy is the active relationship between the laws of Nature that rule the Cosmos, and human free will. A wise person derives maximum benefit and happiness in life by bringing his or her will into harmony with Nature. They come to know themselves, recognising that their inner nature (microcosm) is a representation of the outer macrocosm, or universe; the same nature in both, differing only in scale.
Stoics conceived of the universe as being governed by Logos, what we today would think of as the Laws of Physics. Pure, abstract, they pervade the universe and make it behave in the way it does. The same informing principle resides in humans. Virtue is gained by recognising this and working to harmonise one’s inner self with the qualitatively similar outer world.
Stoics recognise that the human psyche is a multi-layered entity; from the primitive, savage nature inherited from our animal ancestors, up to the higher rational thought of humans at their best. The challenge facing any human wishing to improve the conditions of their life is to develop a conscious awareness of our higher self, and to learn the discipline to live from that, rather than the primitive and often barbaric lower self. So for example, a Stoic will work to overcome anger, envy, and jealousy, recognising that to yield to these primitive impulses will harm them.
The Greek founders of Stoicism conceived of three interrelated elements that collectively make Philosophy. These are logic, physics, and ethics. Logic allows us to recognise truth when we see it, and to avoid making mistakes. Logic allows us to understand Physics, the way that the world operates. Together, Logic and Physics allows us to practice Ethics, or moral behavior that brings benefit.
With its emphasis on duty and right action, Stoicism is therefore well-suited to the needs of those who would lead. It was used as a guide by the ruling class of Rome for centuries.
The Discourses (1 to 52)
One
There are those things in life that we can control, and those that we cannot. We can control our opinions, our pursuits, our desires, and our aversions; in short whatever we think and do. We cannot control what other people think and do. Neither can we control what kind of body we are born with.
The things we can control are by nature free and unconstrained since we have power over them. Those not under our control are not free to us, they are constrained by the will of others. If you try to control those things that are beyond your control, you will become frustrated. You will complain and become upset. It might even make you lose faith in all that is good. But if you mind your own business and confine yourself to that which you know is yours, then no-one will have cause to take issue with you. Furthermore, you will not be inclined to find fault with others, or accuse them of wrong-doing. You will do nothing against your own will. You will have no enemies, so no one will seek to harm you.
Keep your attention on the attainment of higher goals, and resist the temptation to go after lesser goals. Indeed, there are some activities of the latter kind that you must quit entirely and others that should be postponed. If you try to achieve both higher and lower goals, you will achieve neither. Happiness and freedom can only be achieved through the pursuit of higher goals.
Work towards being able to say to every adverse situation; you are not what you appear to be. Then look for the truth in that situation by asking yourself; is this something over which I have control? If it is not, then be prepared to disregard altogether.
Commentary: Much difficulty and unhappiness in people’s lives comes from not clearly distinguishing between those things that are under our control, and those that are not. Since most of what happens in the world is included in the latter category, there is much potential for unhappiness.
An essential life skill is therefore to acquire the mental habit of asking yourself in every situation, is this something over which I have control? If it is not, then you must not try to influence it or worry about it. To meddle in other people’s business is to invite trouble. To worry about situations over which you have no control is stressful and useless. For example, arriving at the airport and finding that your flight has been cancelled due to industrial action is something you cannot change. Your challenge is to come to terms with the situation and make a new plan, all the while keeping your composure.
Two
Keep in mind that desire and aversion are two sides of the same coin. Desire draws us to something pleasurable; aversion repels us from what is painful. We will never be 100% successful at obtaining what we desire and avoiding what we find painful, so at least some of the time we will be disappointed because our expectations are unmet.
We get disappointed because sometimes what we desire is beyond our control. So be in the habit of always distinguishing between what we can and cannot control, and only desire that which we can control. We should feel neutral towards what we cannot control. This includes aging and death and the many other unpleasant facts of life that cannot be avoided. Accept the reality of these and refuse to worry about them. Instead, put all of your efforts into improving those things that you can control.
But for now, begin this process by consciously wanting less. Much of what you currently desire is beyond your control, so by necessity you will be disappointed. A fresh start is needed. Reduce your desires to almost nothing, and disappointment will vanish. When this happens, your mind will be clearer, better able to distinguish clearly between what can and cannot be controlled in your life. Then you can proceed carefully, only desiring and avoiding the things within the scope of your control, and doing so lightly, with gentleness and reservation.
Commentary: Being ignorant of the distinction between what we can and cannot control is a source of great suffering in people’s lives. The source of their suffering remains unrecognised for as long as they are unconscious of this important distinction.
This idea links closely to the sentiment expressed more recently in Reinhold Niebuhr’s Serenity Prayer: God, grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change, Courage to change the things I can, And wisdom to know the difference.
In Buddhist thought, the root of suffering is attachment to temporary things that must eventually change or disappear in a process that is quite beyond our control.
Three
With regard to anything in your life that is deeply loved or valued in some way, remind yourself often of what their general nature is, beginning with the most insignificant things. For example, if you have a favourite ceramic cup, remind yourself that it is ceramic cups in general that you love, so if it gets broken, you will not be too disturbed. You can replace it and be happy. Then proceed to all those things that are more valuable to you.
The most difficult to consider in this way are your family and loved-ones. If you kiss your partner or child, tell yourself that this is a human being that you are kissing. One of many billions, then if one of them dies (heaven forbid) the loss would be easier to bear.
Commentary: This is one aspect of Stoic philosophy that is diametrically opposed to 21st Century Western culture, which places a high value on the unique individuality of people. Stories abound of people who are still grief-stricken decades after the loss of a loved one. It is almost heretical, certainly despicable by today’s standards to suggest that if you lose one child, it is possible to get another. It may be true, but it is nonetheless unacceptable in today’s world.
This philosophy comes from a time when human life was far more tenuous than it is today. Life expectancy was much shorter; wars, tyrants and disease meant that anyone could be here today, gone tomorrow. Indeed, nearly 1,500 years after Epictetus expressed this view, the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes famously observed that life in the state of nature is ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short’.
Only in the latter part of the 20th Century has the quality of human life improved to the point where we are long-lived and secure from most if not all of the hazards that threatened people’s lives in earlier times. You could be forgiven for overlooking this trend if you rely on the daily news media that presents a very different picture.
Four
As you go about doing the many activities of your daily life, prepare yourself beforehand by picturing what this activity normally involves. If you are going to the public baths, for example, imagine what usually happens there. Some people behave themselves, others do not. These latter splash others, bump into them, talk in loud and profane voices, and some will seek to steal your valuables.
Your visit to the public baths will be safer and more enjoyable if you say to yourself; ‘I am going to the baths now, and I will keep myself in a calm and natural state of mind despite the bad behavior of others’. The same principle applies to every thing you do. Then, if a problem arises you are ready to say to yourself; ‘it was not only to visit the baths that I came here, but also to keep myself in a calm and reasonable frame of mind in accordance with Nature. I refuse to become upset by anything that happens’.
Commentary: Being forewarned is to be forearmed. If you know something is likely to happen, prepare yourself so that it does not upset your composure. Being indignant and proclaiming that such-and-such should not be happening is an example of getting upset over things that you cannot control.
Epictetus is advocating the practice of planning to stay calm, not just being calm in the absence of disturbing events.
Five
People are disturbed by their opinion of what happens, not by the happening itself. The world has no fixed reality. It is our belief system that determines how we think about the world. We interpret the world through the lens of our beliefs.
Death, for example, is believed by many to be terrible, yet it is not inherently terrible since some people, like Socrates, believe otherwise. The terror exists in the beliefs of those who fear death, not in death itself, which is an unknown except that it is an inevitable and natural conclusion to life.
So when we are frustrated or upset or aggrieved, let us not blame it on others, but attribute it to our own beliefs or opinions about what has happened.
The person who knows no better will blame their own bad condition on others. The person who is beginning to learn the truth will lay the fault upon himself. The wise person will neither blame himself nor others.
Commentary: If you are of the opinion that you have been harmed in some way, then you have been harmed. But in the same circumstances, if you are of the opinion that you have not been harmed, then indeed you have not been harmed. In both cases, it is your belief that makes the situation what it is. Control your beliefs and you control your world. Put another way, there is no fixed external reality, only what you believe external reality to be.
Six
Do not take credit for the good qualities inherent in others. If a fine horse should be prideful and says ‘I am handsome’, then this statement might be supportable. But if I as the owner of the horse proudly say ‘Look at my handsome horse’ I should be aware that I am being foolishly proud of the good qualities inherent in the horse for which I can take no credit.